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Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis have long been used to drive discovery in developmental, cell, and molecular biology. These dual frog species boast experimental strengths for embryology including large egg sizes that develop externally, well-defined fate maps, and cell-intrinsic sources of nutrients that allow explanted tissues to grow in culture. Development of the Xenopus cell extract system has been used to study cell cycle and DNA replication. Xenopus tadpoletail and limb regeneration have provided fundamental insights into the underlying mechanisms of this processes, and the loss of regenerative competency in adults adds a complexity to the system that can be more directly compared to humans. Moreover, Xenopus genetics and especially disease-causing mutations are highly conserved with humans, making them a tractable system to model human disease. In the last several years, genome editing, expanding genomic resources, and intersectional approaches leveraging the distinct characteristics of each species have generated new frontiers in cell biology. While Xenopus have enduringly represented a leading embryological model, new technologies are generating exciting diversity in the range of discoveries being made in areas from genomics and proteomics to regenerative biology, neurobiology, cell scaling, and human disease modeling.
Figure 1
In this figure, we present a staging series for embryonic Xenopus tropicalis. Stages were broken into four major modules: cleavage, gastrulation, neurulation, and tailbud stages. Both animal and lateral views are shown to highlight the appearance of animal blastomeres as well as the pigment distinctions between animal and vegetal blastomeres. Gastrulation is shown as a continuum from stages 9 to 12.5. Neurulation comprises stages 13 to 18, and staging of this process is primarily predicted from lateral proximity of neural folds to one another in the dorsal view and closure of neural folds in the anterior view. When the neural fold finishes zippering, the embryo begins to elongate. During early tailbud stages (19‐24) the embryo develops morphologically well‐defined anterior structures including the pharyngeal arches, sensory placodes, and eyecup, while elongating along the anterior‐posterior axis. Elongation, development of tailfin, resecting of gut, and development of refined organs then takes place over the rest of tailbud and early tadpole development. The lateral view is best used for staging by looking at the gut morphology, eye morphology, and body elongation. The dorsal view is best used to look at development of arches and elongation
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