Click here to close
Hello! We notice that you are using Internet Explorer, which is not supported by Xenbase and may cause the site to display incorrectly.
We suggest using a current version of Chrome,
FireFox, or Safari.
???displayArticle.abstract???
Predator-induced phenotypic plasticity is the ability of prey to adapt to their native predator. However, owing to environmental changes, encounters with unknown predators are inevitable. Therefore, study of prey and non-native predator interaction will reveal the primary stages of adaptive strategies in prey-predator interactions in the context of evolutionary processes. Here, Xenopus tadpoles exposed to a non-native predator, a larval salamander, showed a significant increase in body weight and tail length to body length ratio. The Tmax2 test indicated a significant enhancement of the tailmuscle and decrease in the relative ventralfin height in tadpoles exposed to predation risk, leading to significantly higher average swimming speeds. The analysis of muscle-related metabolites revealed that sarcosine increased significantly in tadpoles exposed to non-native predators. Multiple linear regression analysis of the fast-start swimming pattern showed that the fast-start swimming speed was determined by the time required for a tadpole to bend its body away from the threat (C-start) and the angle at which it was bent. In conclusion, morphological changes in tadpoles were functionally adaptive and induced by survival behaviors of Xenopus tadpoles against non-native predators.
Fig. 1.
Experimental design and changes in body length and weight in tadpoles exposed to predation. (A) Experimental design of the induced predation in Xenopus tadpoles. Xenopus tadpoles (50 tadpoles per aquarium) were assigned to five different treatment groups. The control group (Cont) was not exposed to the predator for 8 or 10â days of the experiment. The Exp 8 and Exp 10 groups were exposed to the predator for the full 8 and 10â days, respectively. (B) Body length in Xenopus tadpoles exposed to predation. (C) Morphology of Xenopus tadpoles. Tail length was determined as the distance from the anus to the tail top. (D,E) Body weight (D) and the ratio of tail length to body length (E) in tadpoles exposed to predation for 8â days. The number of tadpoles in Cont 8 and Exp 8 was 148 and 97, respectively. Statistical analysis was performed using Krishnaiahâs Embedded Image-test.
Fig. 2.
Analysis of muscle-related metabolites using CE-TOFMS. Ten different Xenopus tadpoles were randomly selected from the group of tadpoles exposed to predation for 8â days (Exp 8) and the control group (Cont 8). Then, the tadpoles were frozen in liquid nitrogen and metabolites extracted with methanol. A pool of methanol extracts from 10 tadpoles was treated as one sample and analyzed using CE-TOFMS.
Fig. 3.
Analysis of sarcosine using GC-MS. Tails from nine different Xenopus tadpoles were randomly selected from the group of tadpoles exposed to predation for 10â days (Exp 10) and the control group (Cont 10), and three tails were combined to prepare three samples for each experiment. Sarcosine was extracted and the content was expressed as picomol of sarcosine per gram of wet sample. Statistical analysis was performed using a two-sample t-test.
Fig. 4.
Measurements of tail height, tail muscle and height of the ventral fin. (A) Photographs of tadpoles in the control (Cont 10) and experimental group (Exp 10). Lines indicate tail height, and the lowercase letters a and b indicate height of the tail muscle and height of the ventral fin, respectively. Tail height (B), height of the tail muscle, and height of the ventral fin (C) were measured in 50 tadpoles from each group of tadpoles exposed to predation for 10â days (Exp 10) and the control (Cont 10). These values were obtained at the points of the greatest height of tadpole's tail from images of tadpoles using ImageJ software.
Fig. 5.
Swimming performance test. Ten tadpoles were randomly chosen from each experimental aquarium, and each tadpole was placed into an experimental electric chamber (A,B). After stabilizing a tadpole's behavior, an electric shock (12 V, 1.5 mA) was delivered to the tadpole for ∼300 ms (B). Swimming behavior of the tadpole was filmed with a high-speed camera at 240 frames/s (Movie 1), and the fast-start swimming speed was analyzed using tadpoles from the control (Cont 10) and the group of tadpoles exposed to predation for 10 days (Exp 10) (C). Statistical analysis was performed using a two-sample t-test after the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test.
Fig. 6.
Normal probability plot for the residual of the regression analysis of the fast-start swimming speed. All points of the normal plot for the residual were within a 95% confidence interval (CI, confidence interval; N, the number of residuals; AD, Anderson-Darling statistic; St Dev, standard deviation of residuals).
Alsayed,
Elevated dimethylglycine in blood of children with congenital heart defects and their mothers.
2013, Pubmed
Alsayed,
Elevated dimethylglycine in blood of children with congenital heart defects and their mothers.
2013,
Pubmed
Brönmark,
Predator-induced phenotypical change in body morphology in crucian carp.
1992,
Pubmed
Eaton,
The Mauthner-initiated startle response in teleost fish.
1977,
Pubmed
Gillardin,
Protein expression profiling in the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis tadpoles exposed to the polychlorinated biphenyl mixture aroclor 1254.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Hellsten,
The genome of the Western clawed frog Xenopus tropicalis.
2010,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Johnson,
Naturally occurring variation in tadpole morphology and performance linked to predator regime.
2015,
Pubmed
Kishida,
Bulgy tadpoles: inducible defense morph.
2004,
Pubmed
McCollum,
Predator-induced morphological changes in an amphibian: predation by dragonflies affects tadpole shape and color.
1997,
Pubmed
Mori,
Correction: The constant threat from a non-native predator increases tail muscle and fast-start swimming performance in Xenopus tadpoles.
2018,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Patel,
Serum creatinine as a marker of muscle mass in chronic kidney disease: results of a cross-sectional study and review of literature.
2013,
Pubmed
Plaghki,
Time course of regeneration of minced frog muscles estimated by the level of energetic substrates.
1976,
Pubmed
Preuss,
Central cellular mechanisms underlying temperature-dependent changes in the goldfish startle-escape behavior.
2003,
Pubmed
Roberts,
Higher homolog and N-ethyl analog of creatine as synthetic phosphagen precursors in brain, heart, and muscle, repressors of liver amidinotransferase, and substrates for creatine catabolic enzymes.
1985,
Pubmed
Schoeppner,
Damage, digestion, and defence: the roles of alarm cues and kairomones for inducing prey defences.
2005,
Pubmed
Sillar,
Thermal activation of escape swimming in post-hatching Xenopus laevis frog larvae.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Soga,
Quantitative metabolome analysis using capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry.
2003,
Pubmed
Sreekumar,
Metabolomic profiles delineate potential role for sarcosine in prostate cancer progression.
2009,
Pubmed
Sudhakaran,
Effect of sarcosine on endothelial function relevant to angiogenesis.
2014,
Pubmed
Sugimoto,
Capillary electrophoresis mass spectrometry-based saliva metabolomics identified oral, breast and pancreatic cancer-specific profiles.
2010,
Pubmed
Tadaishi,
Skeletal muscle-specific expression of PGC-1α-b, an exercise-responsive isoform, increases exercise capacity and peak oxygen uptake.
2011,
Pubmed
Teplitsky,
Escape behaviour and ultimate causes of specific induced defences in an anuran tadpole.
2005,
Pubmed
Trussell,
PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY IN AN INTERTIDAL SNAIL: THE ROLE OF A COMMON CRAB PREDATOR.
1996,
Pubmed
Van Buskirk,
Influence of tail shape on tadpole swimming performance.
2000,
Pubmed
Van Buskirk,
NATURAL SELECTION FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED PHENOTYPES IN TADPOLES.
1997,
Pubmed
Wyss,
Creatine and creatinine metabolism.
2000,
Pubmed
