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Amphibian populations have been declining worldwide, with global climate changes and infectious diseases being among the primary causes of this scenario. Infectious diseases are among the primary drivers of amphibian declines, including ranavirosis and chytridiomycosis, which have gained more attention lately. While some amphibian populations are led to extinction, others are disease-resistant. Although the host's immune system plays a major role in disease resistance, little is known about the immune mechanisms underlying amphibian disease resistance and host-pathogen interactions. As ectotherms, amphibians are directly subjected to changes in temperature and rainfall, which modulate stress-related physiology, including immunity and pathogen physiology associated with diseases. In this sense, the contexts of stress, disease and ecoimmunology are essential for a better understanding of amphibian immunity. This issue brings details about the ontogeny of the amphibian immune system, including crucial aspects of innate and adaptive immunity and how ontogeny can influence amphibian disease resistance. In addition, the papers in the issue demonstrate an integrated view of the amphibian immune system associated with the influence of stress on immune-endocrine interactions. The collective body of research presented herein can provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying disease outcomes in natural populations, particularly in the context of changing environmental conditions. These findings may ultimately enhance our ability to forecast effective conservation strategies for amphibian populations. This article is part of the theme issue 'Amphibian immunity: stress, disease and ecoimmunology'.
Figure 1. A representative figure of how the papers in the present issue contribute to the distinct approaches to investigating amphibian immunity. Ig: antibodies; CORT: corticosterone; TESTO: testosterone. (Online version in colour.)
Assis,
Stress and immunity: Field comparisons among populations of invasive cane toads in Florida.
2020, Pubmed
Assis,
Stress and immunity: Field comparisons among populations of invasive cane toads in Florida.
2020,
Pubmed
Assis,
Corticosterone transdermal application in toads (Rhinella icterica): Effects on cellular and humoral immunity and steroid plasma levels.
2017,
Pubmed
Assis,
Acute stress, steroid plasma levels, and innate immunity in Brazilian toads.
2019,
Pubmed
Assis,
Ecoimmunology: What Unconventional Organisms Tell Us after Two Decades.
2022,
Pubmed
Barsotti,
Dehydration as a stressor in toads (Rhinella ornata).
2019,
Pubmed
Barsotti,
ACTH modulation on corticosterone, melatonin, testosterone and innate immune response in the tree frog Hypsiboas faber.
2017,
Pubmed
Barsotti,
Challenges of a novel range: Water balance, stress, and immunity in an invasive toad.
2021,
Pubmed
Becker,
Multi-Scale Drivers of Immunological Variation and Consequences for Infectious Disease Dynamics.
2019,
Pubmed
Berger,
Chytridiomycosis causes amphibian mortality associated with population declines in the rain forests of Australia and Central America.
1998,
Pubmed
Bernardo-Cravo,
Environmental Factors and Host Microbiomes Shape Host-Pathogen Dynamics.
2020,
Pubmed
Billig,
Effects of elevated corticosterone on humoral innate and antibody-mediated immunity in southern leopard frog (Lithobates sphenocephalus) tadpoles.
2020,
Pubmed
Bókony,
Stressed tadpoles mount more efficient glucocorticoid negative feedback in anthropogenic habitats due to phenotypic plasticity.
2021,
Pubmed
Brock,
The history of ecoimmunology and its integration with disease ecology.
2014,
Pubmed
Brown,
Do changes in body mass alter white blood cell profiles and immune function in Australian cane toads (Rhinella marina)?
2023,
Pubmed
Burraco,
Physiological Stress Responses in Amphibian Larvae to Multiple Stressors Reveal Marked Anthropogenic Effects even below Lethal Levels.
2016,
Pubmed
Campbell,
Outbreaks of an Emerging Viral Disease Covary With Differences in the Composition of the Skin Microbiome of a Wild United Kingdom Amphibian.
2019,
Pubmed
Carey,
How physiological methods and concepts can be useful in conservation biology.
2005,
Pubmed
Christie Monteiro Titon,
Plasma steroids and immune measures vary with restraint duration in a toad (Rhinella icterica).
2022,
Pubmed
Clay,
Multiple stressors produce differential transcriptomic patterns in a stream-dwelling salamander.
2019,
Pubmed
Collins,
Amphibian decline and extinction: what we know and what we need to learn.
2010,
Pubmed
Cross,
The potential of oral vaccines for disease control in wildlife species.
2007,
Pubmed
Dalile,
The role of short-chain fatty acids in microbiota-gut-brain communication.
2019,
Pubmed
de Assis,
Effects of acute restraint stress, prolonged captivity stress and transdermal corticosterone application on immunocompetence and plasma levels of corticosterone on the cururu Toad (Rhinella icterica).
2015,
Pubmed
Demas,
Ecoimmunology for psychoneuroimmunologists: Considering context in neuroendocrine-immune-behavior interactions.
2015,
Pubmed
Densmore,
Diseases of amphibians.
2007,
Pubmed
Dhabhar,
The short-term stress response - Mother nature's mechanism for enhancing protection and performance under conditions of threat, challenge, and opportunity.
2018,
Pubmed
Dhabhar,
Effects of stress on immune function: the good, the bad, and the beautiful.
2014,
Pubmed
Downs,
Mechanisms and methods in ecoimmunology: integrating within-organism and between-organism processes.
2014,
Pubmed
Falso,
The effect of long-term corticosterone treatment on blood cell differentials and function in laboratory and wild-caught amphibian models.
2015,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Gabor,
A non-invasive stress assay shows that tadpole populations infected with Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis have elevated corticosterone levels.
2013,
Pubmed
Gabor,
Elevated Corticosterone Levels and Changes in Amphibian Behavior Are Associated with Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) Infection and Bd Lineage.
2015,
Pubmed
Gardner,
Differential gene expression to an LPS challenge in relation to exogenous corticosterone in the invasive cane toad (Rhinella marina).
2018,
Pubmed
Gomes,
Immunoendocrinology and Ecoimmunology in Brazilian Anurans.
2022,
Pubmed
Graham,
Corticosterone-immune interactions during captive stress in invading Australian cane toads (Rhinella marina).
2012,
Pubmed
Gray,
Ecology and pathology of amphibian ranaviruses.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Grogan,
Immunological Aspects of Chytridiomycosis.
2020,
Pubmed
Grogan,
Review of the Amphibian Immune Response to Chytridiomycosis, and Future Directions.
2018,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Grogan,
Amphibian infection tolerance to chytridiomycosis.
2023,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Hill,
Diagnosis of Aeromonas hydrophila, Mycobacterium species, and Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in an African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis).
2010,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Hopkins,
Innate immunity and stress physiology of eastern hellbenders (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) from two stream reaches with differing habitat quality.
2011,
Pubmed
Hossainey,
A perspective into the relationships between amphibian (Xenopus laevis) myeloid cell subsets.
2023,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Hughey,
Diet- and salinity-induced modifications of the gut microbiota are associated with differential physiological responses to ranavirus infection in Rana sylvatica.
2023,
Pubmed
Janin,
Use of stress-hormone levels and habitat selection to assess functional connectivity of a landscape for an amphibian.
2012,
Pubmed
Jessop,
Testing for Short- and Long-Term Thermal Plasticity in Corticosterone Responses of an Ectothermic Vertebrate.
2018,
Pubmed
Jin Song,
Engineering the microbiome for animal health and conservation.
2019,
Pubmed
Johnson,
Parasite diversity and coinfection determine pathogen infection success and host fitness.
2012,
Pubmed
Kaganer,
Immune priming prior to pathogen exposure sheds light on the relationship between host, microbiome and pathogen in disease.
2023,
Pubmed
Kindermann,
Does physiological response to disease incur cost to reproductive ecology in a sexually dichromatic amphibian species?
2017,
Pubmed
Kindermann,
Urinary corticosterone metabolites and chytridiomycosis disease prevalence in a free-living population of male Stony Creek frogs (Litoria wilcoxii).
2012,
Pubmed
Kohl,
A place for host-microbe symbiosis in the comparative physiologist's toolbox.
2016,
Pubmed
Kohli,
Disease and the Drying Pond: Examining Possible Links among Drought, Immune Function, and Disease Development in Amphibians.
2019,
Pubmed
Kutzer,
Maximising fitness in the face of parasites: a review of host tolerance.
2016,
Pubmed
Lazado,
Interplay between daily rhythmic serum-mediated bacterial killing activity and immune defence factors in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).
2018,
Pubmed
Lima,
Temperature Extreme Events Decrease Endocrine and Immune Reactive Scope in Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus).
2022,
Pubmed
Longo,
Evolutionary ecology of host competence after a chytrid outbreak in a naive amphibian community.
2023,
Pubmed
MacKnight,
Disease resistance in coral is mediated by distinct adaptive and plastic gene expression profiles.
2022,
Pubmed
Madelaire,
Immunomodulation by testosterone and corticosterone in toads: Experimental evidences from transdermal application.
2019,
Pubmed
Madelaire,
Contrasting effects of transdermal and implant corticosterone treatments in the American bullfrog wound healing.
2023,
Pubmed
Martel,
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans sp. nov. causes lethal chytridiomycosis in amphibians.
2013,
Pubmed
Martin,
Extreme Competence: Keystone Hosts of Infections.
2019,
Pubmed
Martin,
Distinct effects of acute versus chronic corticosterone exposure on Zebra finch responses to West Nile virus.
2019,
Pubmed
Martin,
Host Competence: An Organismal Trait to Integrate Immunology and Epidemiology.
2016,
Pubmed
McLaren,
Pathogen resistance may be the principal evolutionary advantage provided by the microbiome.
2020,
Pubmed
Mendelson,
Biodiversity. Confronting amphibian declines and extinctions.
2006,
Pubmed
Miller,
Towards the generation of gnotobiotic larvae as a tool to investigate the influence of the microbiome on the development of the amphibian immune system.
2023,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Moeller,
Dehydration enhances multiple physiological defense mechanisms in a desert lizard, Heloderma suspectum.
2017,
Pubmed
Narayan,
Effects of temperature on urinary corticosterone metabolite responses to short-term capture and handling stress in the cane toad (Rhinella marina).
2012,
Pubmed
Neuman-Lee,
Endocrine-reproductive-immune interactions in female and male Galápagos marine iguanas.
2017,
Pubmed
North,
Anthropogenic and ecological drivers of amphibian disease (ranavirosis).
2015,
Pubmed
Novarro,
Physiological responses to elevated temperature across the geographic range of a terrestrial salamander.
2018,
Pubmed
Ohmer,
Applied ecoimmunology: using immunological tools to improve conservation efforts in a changing world.
2021,
Pubmed
Paull,
From superspreaders to disease hotspots: linking transmission across hosts and space.
2012,
Pubmed
Pereira,
Effects of exogenous elevation of corticosterone on immunity and the skin microbiome of eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens).
2023,
Pubmed
Peterson,
Host stress response is important for the pathogenesis of the deadly amphibian disease, Chytridiomycosis, in Litoria caerulea.
2013,
Pubmed
Råberg,
Decomposing health: tolerance and resistance to parasites in animals.
2009,
Pubmed
Ramsay,
Ontogeny of immunity and potential implications for co-infection.
2023,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Rebollar,
Using "Omics" and Integrated Multi-Omics Approaches to Guide Probiotic Selection to Mitigate Chytridiomycosis and Other Emerging Infectious Diseases.
2016,
Pubmed
Ribas,
Expression profiling the temperature-dependent amphibian response to infection by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Robert,
Comparative and developmental study of the immune system in Xenopus.
2009,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Rodriguez,
The amphibian complement system and chytridiomycosis.
2020,
Pubmed
Rohr,
Evaluating the links between climate, disease spread, and amphibian declines.
2008,
Pubmed
Rollins-Smith,
Amphibian immune defenses against chytridiomycosis: impacts of changing environments.
2011,
Pubmed
Rollins-Smith,
Heat stress and amphibian immunity in a time of climate change.
2023,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Rollins-Smith,
Amphibian immunity-stress, disease, and climate change.
2017,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Ruiz,
The amphibian immune system.
2023,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Scheele,
Amphibian fungal panzootic causes catastrophic and ongoing loss of biodiversity.
2019,
Pubmed
Seddon,
Influence of stressor duration on leukocyte and hormonal responses in male Southeastern five-lined skinks (Plestiodon inexpectatus).
2012,
Pubmed
Singh,
Influence of diet on the gut microbiome and implications for human health.
2017,
Pubmed
Siomko,
Selection of an anti-pathogen skin microbiome following prophylaxis treatment in an amphibian model system.
2023,
Pubmed
Thomas,
Treatment with corticosterone delays cutaneous wound healing in male and female salamanders.
2015,
Pubmed
Titon,
Testosterone immunomodulation in free-living and captive Rhinella icterica male toads.
2023,
Pubmed
,
Xenbase
Titon,
Time-related immunomodulation by stressors and corticosterone transdermal application in toads.
2019,
Pubmed
Titon,
Interplay among steroids, body condition and immunity in response to long-term captivity in toads.
2018,
Pubmed
Titon,
Short-term stressors and corticosterone effects on immunity in male toads (Rhinella icterica): A neuroimmune-endocrine approach.
2021,
Pubmed
Titon Junior,
LPS-induced immunomodulation and hormonal variation over time in toads.
2021,
Pubmed
Voyles,
Electrolyte depletion and osmotic imbalance in amphibians with chytridiomycosis.
2007,
Pubmed
Warne,
Microbiome mediation of animal life histories via metabolites and insulin-like signalling.
2022,
Pubmed
Youngblut,
Host diet and evolutionary history explain different aspects of gut microbiome diversity among vertebrate clades.
2019,
Pubmed
